2.70 Nephron Structure

•  Nephron: The functioning part of the kidney, it does the filtration and the controlling of the composition of the blood.
• Bowman's capsule: The dead end to the Nephron. 
• Proximal Convoluted tubule: The first twisted section.
• Distal Convoluted tubule: The second twisted section. 
•  Glomerulus: Filters the blood and is surrounded by the bowman's capsule
•  Loop of Henle: Leads the Proximal tubule to the distal tubule there are millions of Nephrons in the kidney.

2.71 Ultrafiltration

• The blood arrives in the kidney through the Afferent Arteriole.
• The Arteriole begins to branch off and create a twisted knot-like structure called the Glomerulus.
• The diameter of the Efferent Arteriole is smaller.
• This creates a high pressure.
• Plasma which is salts, water, amino acids, urea and glucose is forced out of the blood vessel and into the inside of Bowman's capsule.
• This is called the Glomerular filtrate.

2.72 Water re-absorbtion

• When the ultrafiltration occurs in the Bowman's capsule, too much water is filtered.
• The water is removed from the filtrate.
• It is then added into the blood vessels.
• This is called selective reabsorption.
• As it passes through the Collecting Duct, water is removed from the filtrate. 

2.73 Glucose re-absorption

• A molecule is selected and is reabsorbed back into the blood.
• The molecule gets removed from the blood and is put back in.
• If there is glucose in urine, the person could have diabetes.
• There usually is no glucose in urine.
• In the first convoluted tubule glucose is removed and out back into the blood.

2.74 ADH

• ADH- Anti Diuretic Hormone.
• ADH increases the permeability of the kidneys which allows them to re-absorb more water.
• It flows through the blood stream to the kidneys.
• It is produced in the region of the brain known as the hypothalamus. 
• It controls the amount of water in the blood.
• Tissue fluid should be isotonic with the cells.

2.75 Urine

• Urine contains water salts and urea.
• The removal of urea is a part of excretion and metabolic waste.
• Salts and urea is removed by osmoregulation to maintain isotonic tissue.
• The salt, water and urea composition in each person varies depending on the condition the person is in.

2.69 Urinary system

• There are two kidneys in the urinary system with separate blood supplies, they carry out filtration, excretion and Osmoregulation.
• The kidneys use the process of excretion and filtration.
• Each kidney there is a tube which lead to the bladder called the ureter.
• The ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
• The urine is conducted to the outside of the body down the urethra, to be excreted which travels down the vagina or penis.

2.68b Osmoregulation

• Osmoregulation means control of Osmosis.
• Tissue fluid, surrounding the cells in the body are isotonic with the cytoplasm of the cells.

• It means  that the amount of water going in and out of these cells are equal, and the cells will stay the same size and maintain their function.

• The danger of the tissue is that blood circulating into the tissue is concentrated, causing a hypertonic tissue fluid.
• It also may be very dilute causing a hypotonic tissue fluid.

2.68a Excretion

• The urea contains nitrogen which is toxic to the body and cannot be stored.
• The original form of nitrogen are amino acids.
• Blood circulates into the liver and breaks down, and  it is converted into Urea.
  
• It re-enters the blood stream and circulates to both kidneys.
  
• The kidneys filter the urea from the blood and will be added to water to form urine.

2.67b Human organs of Excretion

• The lungs excrete carbon dioxide through respiration.
• The kidneys excrete H20, Urea and Salts.
• Skin excretes water and salt through the process of sweating and also abit of Urea.

2.67a Excretion in plants

• Photosynthesis happens when a leaf absorbs light energy and in this process it combines CO2 with water to form glucose and oxygen which are given off as waste molecules.
• CO2 + H2O ---> C6H12oO6 + O2 -> Excretion
• Glucose and Oxygen happen through enzyme reactions, the glucose is broken down and forms ATP.
• Carbon dioxide is a metabolic waste and is excreted.
• C6H12oO6 + O2 ---> ATP + H2O + H2O -> Respiration
• Glucose molecule are broken down and energy is used to form ATP and get the waste of carbon dioxide and water to be given off.
• This waste process is called Excretion.

3.18c Codominance

3.20A and B Pedigree diagrams

3.21a Genetic Probabilities

3.21b Genetic Probabilities

3.19b F1 x F1 Cross

3.19a P1 x P1 Cross

3.18b Genotypes

3.18a Phenotypes

3.2 Fertilisation

• The adult male and female gametes are formed by meiosis. 
• When we have sufficient cells this will then be called an embryo.
• The cells that are formed by meiosis have half as many chromosomes as the cell that formed them.
• Fertilisation occurs when a male and female gamete join.
• The zygote divides into a ball of cells, called the blastula which then grows to form the embryo.

3.9a Male reproduction system

• Urine is stored in the bladder.
• The penis carries the sperm into the vagina.
• Sperm is stored in the epididymis.
• The seminal vesticle produces 70% of the semen.
• Urethra is the tube which connects the testes and the SV which takes semen to the penis.

3.12 Amniotic Fluid

• Amniotic fluid is found inside the embryo.
• If anything happens to the outside uterus amniotic fluid prevent anything happening to the unborn child.
• Amniotic fluid can't be compressed, it absorbs pressure. 

3.11 Placenta

• The placenta grows out of the developing embryo not the mother. 
• The blood vessels inside the placenta are the child's blood vessels including arteries and veins.
• The placenta grows into the wall of the uterus. 
• Glucose, amino acids and fats travels through the mother's blood stream and into the wall of the uterus. 
• Glucose, amino acids and fats will cross into the child's blood at the placenta.
• Amino acids, sugars and fats will go from the mother's to the child's blood.

3.24a Mitosis

• Mitosis is a type of cell division that leads to growth and repair.
• The amount of chromosomes in a nucleus is called the diploid numbers.
• When a cell is divided by mitosis each cell is identical and two new cells are formed.
• Growth occurs by increase in the number of cells. 
• All humans have 46 (2n) amount of chromosomes. 

3.24b Mitosis

• Chromosomes make identical copies of themselves. 
• Two daughter cells form with the identical chromosomes and the parent cells. 
• When this happens it is DNA replication.
• What hold the DNA together is something called the centromere which is located in the middle of the chromosome.
• When this occurs they are know as a pair of chromotids.

3.24c Mitosis

• When a cell first breaks down it shows that it is entering the process of mitosis and cell division.
• Chromosomes become visible as "chromotids" in a pair after the breakdown of the membrane.
• As cell division carries on fibres form and each end of the cells.
• Chromotids line up in the middle of the cell and are pulled apart by fibres.
• The nucleus forms around the chromosomes at each end causing two nuclies.  

3.16 DNA and Genetic information

• One chromosome contains thousands of genes.
• There are 4 kinds of bases called: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
• They are found in DNA in the pairs: Thymine-Adenine and Guanine-Cytosine. 
• When you magnify one gene you can see a double helix which appear parallel.
• Genes contain an organized structure of bases in this order: ATCGAACCAG.

Question: Why do double helix's appear in parallel shape?

3.15 Genes

• Genes are located in the nucleus.
• A double helix shaped gene carries information of the characteristic of the organism.
• Information of the gene is passed to the cytoplasm.
• After passing into the cytoplasm the gene is then turned into a protein. 
• Protein controls the characteristic of the gene.

Question: Does that amount of genes you have change your gender?

3.14 Chromosomes

• A chromosome is the genetic information inside a cell. 
• Genes control the production of protein which controls a characteristic.  
• Chromosomes have a DNA that forms a shape which is called a double helix. 
• Each different species have different amount of chromosomes. 
• Chromosomes operate in pairs which are based on length. 

Question: What is the organized structure of a chromosome? 

3.1 Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

• Organisms that have sexual reproduction show sexes that is when they can be identified as a male or female.  
• There are tho different type of genders which are males and females.
• Males have sperm and females have eggs.
• Fertilization is the process of fertilizing an egg of a female animal or a plant involving the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote. 
• All humans are different, physically and mentally and don't look alike unless they are un identical twins.

4.9 Carbon Cycle

• C02+H20 are combined in photosynthesis using light energy. 
• Light energy is trapped and used to form organic molecules such as glucose. 
• The C02 comes from the atmosphere which makes 0.03% of the atmosphere. 
• Photosynthesis is responsible for reducing the atmospheric C02.
• The passage of carbon through the various trophic level we have identified the producer but then producers are eaten by primary consumers.  
• The primary consumer takes in the carbon from the producer and uses it to reconstitute body materials so it grows.

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4.14 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

• Water Vapor, Methane and Carbon dioxide are all greenhouse gases. 
• Greenhouse gases changes the climate. 
• The UV rays are increasingly re-emitted which warms the earth's surface. 
• Melting ice case, raising sea levels can happen due to Greenhouse gases.

4.13 Greenhouse Gases

• Burning of fossil fuels - N02, C02, S02.
• Evaporation of water. 
• Canned spray - Deodorant, Room freshener. 

4.12 Greenhouse Effect

• UV light comes from the sun. 
• UV light is converted as infrared and absorbed. 
• 50% of UV light is reflected. 
• The more the greenhouse gases the more heat there is. 
• Infrared gets emitted back out.

4.11 Gas Pollution

• The burning of fossil fuels results in sulphur dioxide gas. 
• Sulphur dioxide happens mostly because of factories and cars. 
• Acid rain kills fish in lakes and rivers. 
• Carbon monoxide blocks hemoglobin which can lead to death. 
• S02+H20 -Sulphuric acid - Acid rain.

4.7 Energy Efficiency

• Losses in the owl is from respiration, producing energy for flight, digestion, movement, the nervous system. 
• All organisms finally die and are broken down by micro-organisms living on the dead and decaying remains of other micro-organisms. 
• 100Kj of grass energy represents grass eaten by the herbivore. 
• Mouse have to walk around and find their food and carry out the process of respiration. 
• 90Kj of energy left is lost from respiration and undigested food.

4.6 Energy and substances in food chains

• Bush grass is eaten by impala. 
• Bush grass is the producer Impala is the primary consumer leopard is the secondary
• consumer.
• Producer turns light energy into chemical energy - takes the form of organic molecules including carbohydrates, proteins and lipids --> what we call food.
• These molecules are composed of C-H bonds, C-O bonds, C-C bonds, O-H bonds and C-N bonds - ALL represent energy. 

4.5b Food Webs

• Food webs allow better description of the ecosystem.
• Food web allows us to show organisms feeding at different trophic levels. 
• Organisms can have multiple predators.
• Organisms may be feeding on multiple pray.
• Results in food chains becoming linked.

4.5a Food Chains

•  Food in China links together producer to the 1st consumer, 2nd consumer and 3rd consumer. 
•  Only one organism per trophic level.
•  Food chain cannot show an organism being an omnivore. 
•  Cannot show them feed at more than 2 trophic levels. 
•  Food chains show the flow of matter and energy. 

4.4 Trophic Levels

• Trophic means to feed.
• Carrot plant>Photosynthesis>Producer.
•  Producer turns light energy into chemical energy.
•  Primary Consumer takes in the chemical energy of the plant and changes it into chemical energy of the fly.
•  All organisms die and are then broken down by decomposers of fungi and bacteria. 

4.3 Quadrates samples

• The sample needs to be random (bias). 
• The second part of the sample is that it needs to be representative (large).
• A sample needs to be big enough so the estimate has to be close to the real population. 
• The grid system is going to work like the x,y coordinates on a graph you would draw.
• The random numbers are used to generate a number for the x and y coordinates and will tell us where to take a sample from. 

4.2 Quadrates

• Quadrates are used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas.
• All ecosystems are made up of a number of populations which formed the community. 
• The technique is called quadrating, it is based on squares and can be made from an material.
• They form square grids which can consist of 0.25 meter or 1 meter. 
• Quadrates are a method of sampling different locations so populations can be compared in two different locations.

4.1 Ecosystems

• A community of organisms consist of a population of different species. 
• The habitat includes the non biological factors.
• The environment could have the cycle of daylight with dark, the temperature, rainfall, humidity and slope of the land. 
• All the factors have something in common; they are all non biological. 
• The community which is made up from different species interact with each other.

Parts of an apple: fertilization

Core:

Seeds:

Surrounding of core and leftover stigma:

The part of the apple that attracts animals:

3.4 Plant Fertilization

• The pollen tubes will only complete if they are from the same species. 
• The nucleus travels down the pollen tube and into the ovule. 
• Pollen nucleus will fertilize the ovule and will leave to a formation of a zygote and will grow into the embryonic plant. 
• The outside of the ovule forms the seed coat also know as the TESTA. 
• Cotyledons are the food stores for the seedling and will support the plant until it develops its first set of leaves. 

3.3 a Insect pollination

• A pollination flower transfers pollen grain from the anther to a stigma of a plant. 
• A pollen is a small structure that contains male nuclei. 
• Transfer in an insects pollinated plant is taken place by insects. 
• Its necessary for this plant to attract insects. 
• If pollen goes from one plant to another this is called cross pollination.

3.3 b Wind pollination

• Transfer of the pollen grains are from the anther. 
• The pollen grain from the anther to the stigma is through air carried by the wind. 
• Pollen grain has lightweight pollen grains, which some wing feature. 
• It would probably let it move for efficiently through the air. 
• There is no color in the petals and no smell to attract insects.

The Phototropism of plants

2.81 Phototropism

• The word phototropism means light growth, suggesting that the growth is towards the light.
• The light comes in all directions meaning that the light will grow forward. 
• If light comes into the plant sideways that means that the plant will grow in the direction the light is coming in. 
• The light on one side causes the plant to move to the opposite side. 
• Auxin causes more growth to the plant which makes the plant grow in the other direction an also causes the plant to bend. 
• Cell division is called mitosis which means that the cells multiply.

2.80 Geotropism

• Geo of Geotropism stands for gravity and tropism stands for growth response. 
• The embryonic roots grown downwards and it's called positive geotropism. 
• Where the embryonic roots grow upwards it is negative geotropism. 
• Plants commonly exist in a state of "anisotropic growth," where roots grow downward and shoots grow upward. 
• No matter what you do to a plant within Earth's atmosphere, it will still grow roots down, stem up. 

2.79 Plants and Stimuli

• Stimuli is the changes in the environment such as temperature or light changes. 
• The plant has receptors that can detect stimuli and turn that into a response, usually the responses make them grow called tropism. 
• Tropism involves light is called phototropism, gravity, geotropism. 
• The connection between the receptors and response usually take to place plant hormones, such as auxin. 
• Auxins are a class of plant growth substances its role in the plant is usually structure and growth. 

2.55 Rate of transpiration

• Transpiration is the loss of water through a leaf.  
• Absorption of sunlight through the leaf transforms water into heat. 
• For evaporation to happen the liquid has to turn into a gas through diffusion through the stomatal pore.
• The concentration gradient for water if there is a big difference there would be a high rate of transpiration. 
• If the humidity was low that would make the rate of transpiration slow, with high temperature you would get more evaporation. 

2.17 Photosynthesis

• The source of light energy is the sun. 
• The plants need carbon hydrogen, and oxygen through the stems. 
• The water molecules come out at the xylem into the palisade layer. 
• Photosynthesis occurs in the palisade layer. 
•  The phloem stores the minerals and food.

2.53 Uptake of Water

• Water is collected from the roots of the plants and travels up the stem. 
• The root has a big surface area so the root can absorb a lot of water. 
• Water enters through the epidermis of the roots. 
• Even though there is no water, minerals enter freely. 
• In the plant through osmosis water moves from a dilute to a concentrated region.

2.54 Transportation

• For water to turn into gas it requires heat. 
• Heat is supplied by sunlight as it is absorbed by the plant structure. 
• Evaporation happens through the stomatal pore. 
• Water is delivered into the leaf by the xylem. 
• Water vapor diffuses down the diffusion gradient and through the stomatole pore.